Combined Global Positioning System Research Articles

Wearable reproductive trackers: quantifying a key life history event remotely

Advancements in biologging technology allow terabytes of data to be collected that record the location of individuals but also their direction, speed and acceleration. These multi-stream data sets allow researchers to infer movement and behavioural patterns at high spatiotemporal resolutions and in turn quantify fine-scale changes in state along with likely ecological causes and consequences. The scope offered by such data sets is increasing and there is potential to gain unique insights into a suite of ecological and life history phenomena. We use multi-stream data from global positioning system (GPS) and accelerometer (ACC) devices to quantify breeding events remotely in an Arctic breeding goose. From a training set of known breeders we determine the movement and overall dynamic body acceleration patterns indicative of incubation and use these to classify breeding events in individuals with unknown reproductive status. Given that researchers are often constrained by the amount of biologging data they can collect due to device weights, we carry out a sensitivity analysis. Here we explore the relative merits of GPS vs ACC data and how varying the temporal resolution of the data affects the accuracy of classifying incubation for birds. Classifier accuracy deteriorates as the temporal resolution of GPS and ACC are reduced but the reduction in precision (false positive rate) is larger in comparison to recall (false negative rate). Precision fell to 94.5%, whereas recall didn’t fall below 98% over all sampling schedules tested. Our data set could have been reduced by c.95% while maintaining precision and recall > 98%. The GPS-only classifier generally outperformed the ACC-only classifier across all accuracy metrics but both performed worse than the combined GPS and ACC classifier. GPS and ACC data can be used to reconstruct breeding events remotely, allowing unbiased, 24-h monitoring of individuals. Our resampling-based sensitivity analysis of classifier accuracy has important implications with regards to both device design and sampling schedules for study systems, where device size is constrained. It will allow researchers with similar aims to optimize device battery, memory usage and lifespan to maximise the ability to correctly quantify life history events.

Female and male Leach's Storm Petrels (Hydrobates leucorhous) pursue different foraging strategies during the incubation period.

Reproduction in procellariiform birds is characterized by a single egg clutch, slow development, a long breeding season and obligate biparental care. Female Leach's Storm Petrels Hydrobates leucorhous, nearly monomorphic members of this order, produce eggs that are between 20 and 25% of adult body weight. We tested whether female foraging behaviour differs from male foraging behaviour during the ~ 44-day incubation period across seven breeding colonies in the Northwest Atlantic. Over six breeding seasons, we used a combination of Global Positioning System and Global Location Sensor devices to measure characteristics of individual foraging trips during the incubation period. Females travelled significantly greater distances and went farther from the breeding colony than did males on individual foraging trips. For both sexes, the longer the foraging trip, the greater the distance. Independent of trip duration, females travelled farther, and spent a greater proportion of their foraging trips prospecting widely as defined by behavioural categories derived from a Hidden Markov Model. For both sexes, trip duration decreased with date. Sex differences in these foraging metrics were apparently not a consequence of morphological differences or spatial segregation. Our data are consistent with the idea that female foraging strategies differed from male foraging strategies during incubation in ways that would be expected if females were still compensating for egg formation.

The Building Stock in the City of Dubai: A Survey Methodology

In 2003, new building regulations were introduced in the city of Dubai. In 2012, the municipality requested a survey of every building that existed prior to that year. This paper documents the method used for this significant undertaking, not performed by any other large city. The survey was conducted using a combination of Global Positioning System (GPS)-enabled photography and field visits. Multiple images were taken of every street, resembling progressive film imagery, with every building recorded multiple times in the image sequence. The location-tagged images were superimposed on a city map and compared to historical satellite maps of the city from Google Earth history timelines. Whenever the photographic data was not enough to adequately classify a building, field visits were conducted. That was necessary for around 10% of the city structures. The fieldwork was conducted by two teams, each comprising two engineers, and took four weeks to complete. The results showed that, in 2003, there were around 37,000 buildings in the city. Of those, almost 89%, were low-rise (1–2 floors) and largely single-unit residential houses. Nearly all buildings were found to be built after the mid-1980s, and in very good structural condition. The system described in this paper may be applied to any other large-scale city building survey.

Kinematic Slip Model of the 2021 M 6.0 Antelope Valley, California, Earthquake

Abstract We present a kinematic slip model of the 8 July 2021 Antelope Valley earthquake from a finite-source inversion based on regional seismic waveforms and static offsets from Global Positioning System (GPS) and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR). Seismic waveforms are employed at 6 s dominant period out to 100 km from the epicenter, and the combined GPS and InSAR datasets cover the near field and far field out to ∼100 km and constrain the overall rupture size. The aftershock pattern defines a nearly north-striking, 50° east-dipping fault plane. We find a unilateral rupture along this fault plane propagating southward and updip with predominantly normal slip up to ∼1.5 m. The estimated seismic moment of 8.47×1017  N·m is equivalent to Mw 5.92. A finite-source inversion that retains seismic waveforms and GPS static offsets but omits InSAR range changes yields a seismic moment of 1.08×1018  N·m (Mw 5.99). Despite vigorous aftershock activity between 10 km and Earth’s surface, coseismic slip is concentrated in the depth interval 7–10 km.

Precise Relative Orbit Determination for Chinese TH-2 Satellite Formation Using Onboard GPS and BDS2 Observations

TH-2 is China’s first short-range satellite formation system used to realize interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technology. In order to achieve the mission goal of InSAR processing, the relative orbit must be determined with high accuracy. In this study, the precise relative orbit determination (PROD) for TH-2 based on global positioning system (GPS), second-generation BeiDou navagation satellite system (BDS2), and GPS + BDS2 observations was performed. First, the performance of onboard GPS and BDS2 measurements were assessed by analyzing the available data, code multipath errors and noise levels of carrier phase observations. The differences between the National University of Defense Technology (NDT) and the Xi’an Research Institute of Surveying and Mapping (CHS) baseline solutions exhibited an RMS of 1.48 mm outside maneuver periods. The GPS-based orbit was used as a reference orbit to evaluate the BDS2-based orbit and the GPS + BDS2-based orbit. It is the first time BDS2 has been applied to the PROD of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite formation. The results showed that the root mean square (RMS) of difference between the PROD results using GPS and BDS2 measurements in 3D components was 2.89 mm in the Asia-Pacific region. We assigned different weights to geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) satellites to illustrate the impact of GEO satellites on PROD, and the accuracy of PROD was improved to 7.08 mm with the GEO weighting strategy. Finally, relative orbits were derived from the combined GPS and BDS2 data. When BDS2 was added on the basis of GPS, the average number of visible navigation satellites from TH-2A and TH-2B improved from 7.5 to 9.5. The RMS of the difference between the GPS + BDS2-based orbit and the GPS-based orbit was about 1.2 mm in 3D. The overlap comparison results showed that the combined orbit consistencies were below 1 mm in the radial (R), along-track (T), and cross-track (N) directions. Furthermore, when BDS2 co-worked with GPS, the average of the ambiguity dilution of precision (ADOP) reduced from 0.160 cycle to 0.153 cycle, which was about a 4.4% reduction. The experimental results indicate that millimeter-level PROD results for TH-2 satellite formation can be obtained by using onboard GPS and BDS2 observations, and multi-GNSS can further improve the accuracy and reliability of PROD.

Assessment of GPS/Galileo/BDS Precise Point Positioning with Ambiguity Resolution Using Products from Different Analysis Centers

Suffering from hardware phase biases originating from satellites and the receiver, precise point positioning (PPP) requires a long convergence time to reach centimeter coordinate accuracy, which is a major drawback of this technique and limits its application in time-critical applications. Ambiguity resolution (AR) is the key to a fast convergence time and a high-precision solution for PPP technology and PPP AR products are critical to implement PPP AR. Nowadays, various institutions provide PPP AR products in different forms with different strategies, which allow to enable PPP AR for Global Positioning System (GPS) and Galileo or BeiDou Navigation System (BDS). To give a full evaluation of PPP AR performance with various products, this work comprehensively investigates the positioning performance of GPS-only and multi-GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) combination PPP AR with the precise products from CNES, SGG, CODE, and PRIDE Lab using our in-house software. The positioning performance in terms of positioning accuracy, convergence time and fixing rate (FR) as well as time to first fix (TTFF), was assessed by static and kinematic PPP AR models. For GPS-only, combined GPS and Galileo PPP AR with different products, the positioning performances were all comparable with each other. Concretely, the static positioning errors can be reduced by 21.0% (to 0.46 cm), 52.5% (to 0.45 cm), 10.0% (to 1.33 cm) and 21.7% (to 0.33 cm), 47.4% (to 0.34 cm), 9.5% (to 1.16 cm) for GPS-only and GE combination in north, east, up component, respectively, while the reductions are 20.8% (to 1.13 cm), 42.9% (to 1.15 cm), 19.9% (to 3.4 cm) and 20.4% (to 0.72 cm), 44.1% (to 0.66 cm), 10.1% (to 2.44 cm) for kinematic PPP AR. Overall, the positioning performance with CODE products was superior to the others. Furthermore, multi-GNSS observations had significant improvements in PPP performance with float solutions and the TTFF as well as the FR of GPS PPP AR could be improved by adding observations from other GNSS. Additionally, we have released the source code for multi-GNSS PPP AR, anyone can freely access the code and example data from GitHub.

Sensors in Autonomous Vehicles: A Survey

Abstract Research and technology in autonomous vehicles is beginning to become well recognized among computer scientists and engineers. Autonomous vehicles contain a combination of global positioning system (GPS), light detection and ranging (LIDAR), cameras, radio detection and ranging (RADAR), and ultrasonic sensors (which are hardly ever included). These autonomous vehicles use no less than two sensing modalities and usually have three or more. The goal of this research is to determine which sensor to use depending on the functionality of the autonomous vehicle and analyze the similarities and differences of sensor configurations (which may come from different industries too). This study summarizes sensors in four industries: personal vehicles, public transportation, smart farming, and logistics. In addition, the paper includes advantages and disadvantages of how each sensor configuration are helpful by taking into consideration the activity that has to be achieved in the autonomous vehicle. A table of results is incorporated to organize most of the sensors’ availability in the market and their advantages and disadvantages. After comparing each sensor configuration, recommendations are going to be proposed for different scenarios in which some types of sensors will be more useful than others.

VLBI and GPS inter- and intra-technique combinations on the observation level for evaluation of TRF and EOP

We study the effects of combination on the observation level (COL) of different space-geodetic techniques and of networks of the same technique and present the corresponding improvement for the determination of station positions and earth orientation parameters. Data from the continuous geodetic very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) campaign CONT17 are used in a batch least-squares (LSQ) estimator. This campaign includes 15 days of observations with two legacy S/X networks, namely Legacy-1 (L1) and Legacy-2 (L2). For this study the VLBI L1 network is used as the base and reference solution. Data from the L1 network are combined first with data from co-located Global Positioning System (GPS) stations by estimating common tropospheric parameters. The derived station positions repeatabilities of the VLBI and GPS networks are evaluated with respect to single-technique solutions. In terms of precision, we find a 25% improvement for the vertical repeatability of the L1 network, and a 10% improvement for the horizontal one. The GPS network also benefits by 20% and 10% in the horizontal and vertical components, respectively. Furthermore, a combined solution using data of the L1 and L2 network is performed by estimating common earth orientation parameters. The combined L1&GPS and L1&L2 solutions are compared to the reference solution by investigating UT1 and polar motion estimates. UT1 is evaluated in terms of mean bias and formal errors with respect to the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) C04 products which were used as a priori values. The L1&GPS solution has the lowest formal error and mean bias for UT1 with a 30% improvement. The weighted root mean square (WRMS) and weighted mean offset (WMO) differences between the obtained polar motion estimates and the ones derived by the International GNSS Service (IGS) are also compared. We find that the L1&GPS solution gives the lowest WRMS and WMO, exhibiting an average 40% improvement with respect to the reference solution. The presented results highlight the potential of COL for ongoing transition to multi-space geodetic analysis, e.g., Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) with the next-generation VLBI system.Graphic

Influence of Precise Products on the Day-Boundary Discontinuities in GNSS Carrier Phase Time Transfer.

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) precise point positioning (PPP) has been widely used for high-precision time and frequency transfer. However, the day-boundary discontinuities at the boundary epochs of adjacent days or batches are the most significant obstacle preventing PPP from continuous time transfer. The day-boundary discontinuities in station estimates and time comparisons are mainly caused by the code-pseudorange noise during the analysis of observation data in daily batches, where the absolute clock offset is determined by the average code measurements. However, some discontinuities with amplitudes even more than 0.15 ns may still appear in station clock estimates and time comparisons, although several methods had been proposed to remove such discontinuities. The residual small amplitude of the day-boundary discontinuities in some PPP station clock estimates and time comparisons through new GNSSs like Galileo seems larger, especially using precise clock products with large discontinuities. To further understand the origin of the day-boundary discontinuities, the influence of GNSS precise products on the day-boundary discontinuities in PPP station clock estimates and time comparisons is investigated in this paper. Ten whole days of Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) from modified Julian date (MJD) 59028 to 59037 are used as the observation data. For a comparative analysis, the station clock estimates are compared with global positioning system (GPS) and Galileo observations through PPP and network solutions, separately. The experimental results show that the daily discontinuities in current combined GPS final and rapid clock products are less than 0.1 ns, and their influence on the origin of day-boundary discontinuities in PPP station clock estimates and time comparison are statistically negligible. However, the daily discontinuities in individual Analysis Centers (ACs) GPS products are more extensive, and their influence on the origin of the day-boundary discontinuities in GPS PPP station clock estimates cannot be ignored. The day-boundary discontinuities demonstrate random walk noise characteristics and deteriorate the station clocks’ long-term frequency stability, especially at an average time of more than one day. Although Galileo clock daily discontinuities are different from those of GPS, their influence on the day-boundary discontinuities in station clock estimates is nearly similar to the GPS PPP. The influence of daily discontinuities of Galileo clocks on PPP time comparison is similar to GPS and is not particularly critical to time comparison. However, combined and weighted MGEX products should be developed or Galileo IPPP should be used for remote comparison of high-stability clocks.

Real‐time detection of BDS orbit manoeuvres based on the combination of GPS and BDS observations

The construction of the third generation of the Chinese BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS), which provides global positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services, will be completed in 2020. As BDS satellites contain the geostationary orbit (GEO), inclined geosynchronous (IGSO), and medium earth orbit (MEO), orbital manoeuvres occur more frequently. Thus, orbit manoeuvre detection is important for continuous and reliable PNT services. A BDS orbit manoeuvre detection method based on the combination of global positioning system (GPS) and BDS observations is proposed in this study. The standard deviations of the observation residuals of the epoch-differenced velocity estimation of the single BDS system and combined GPS + BDS system were compared to determine the beginning and end of the orbit manoeuvre. The results show that the orbital manoeuvre leads to a position, velocity, and receiver clock error bias of approximately tens to hundreds of metres, several centimetres per second, and tens to hundreds of metres, respectively. Based on the proposed method, the start and end times can be detected in real time and the usable observation time can be extended by >157 min.

Assessing the Positioning Performance Under the Effects of Strong Ionospheric Anomalies With Multi‐GNSS in Hong Kong

AbstractGlobal navigation satellite system (GNSS) precise positioning performance will be strongly affected under severe ionospheric anomaly conditions. The combination of multi‐GNSS can increase the available observations and improve the geometry of continuously tracked satellites. This paper focuses on assessing the positioning performance with the combination of Global Positioning System (GPS), Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikova Sistema (GLONASS), and BeiDou System (BDS) around the St. Patrick's Day geomagnetic storm (9–18 March) in 2015 in Hong Kong. The rate of total electron content (TEC) index (ROTI) indicates severe ionospheric anomalies before the superstorm, while it was absent during the main phase of the storm in Hong Kong. Furthermore, strong scintillation events on signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR) and multipath (MP) observables are observed during ionospheric anomalies period. Then the performance of single‐point positioning (SPP) and precise point positioning (PPP) with multi‐GNSS is shown. The ionospheric scintillation events may reduce pseudorange accuracy but affect SPP performance a little in this study, while the PPP accuracy is vastly decreased due to the subsequent reconvergence caused by frequent cycle slip (CS). Compared to PPP solutions with GPS only, the accuracy is improved significantly with the combination of multi‐GNSS.

Characterization of Inter-System Biases in GPS + BDS Precise Point Positioning

With the combination of multi-GNSS data, the precise-point positioning (PPP) technique can improve its accuracy, availability and reliability: Inter-system bias (ISB) is the non-negligible parameter in multi-GNSS PPP. To further enhance the performance of multi-GNSS PPP, it is crucial to analyze the characterization of inter system biases (ISBs) and model them properly. In this contribution, we comprehensively investigate the characterization of ISBs between global positioning system (GPS) and BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) in different situations. (1) We estimate ISB by using different precise products from the Center for Orbit Determination (CODE), Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) and Wuhan University (WHU). The results indicate that the one-day estimates of ISB are stable when using CODE and WHU products, whereas the estimates based on GFZ products vary remarkably. As for the three-day time series of ISB, a sudden jump exists between two adjacent days, which is due to the change of satellite clock datum; (2) We investigate the ISB characterization affected by the ambient environments of the receivers. The result shows that the ISBs estimated from receivers (and antennas) with same type are still inconsistent, which indicates that the ambient environment, probably the temperature, influences the ISB characterization as well, since the receivers are in different areas; (3) We analyze the ISB characterization affected by receiver and antenna type with the same ambient environment. To ensure the same ambient environment, the ultra-short baselines were applied to investigate the ISB characterization affected by the receiver and antenna type. With the insights into ISB characterizations, we carry out combined GPS and BDS PPP with modeling the ISB as time constant, random walk process and white noise. The results suggest that the random walk process outperforms in most cases, since it strengthens the model to some extend and, at the same time, considers the variation of ISBs.

Unmodeled error mitigation for single-frequency multi-GNSS precise positioning based on multi-epoch partial parameterization

In global navigation satellite system (GNSS) precise positioning, some residual systematic errors inevitably exist in GNSS observations. These residual systematic errors can be regarded as the unmodeled errors that cannot be easily mitigated by traditional parameterization, modeling or other methods, mainly due to their spatiotemporal complexity. In a multi-GNSS scenario, there are enough redundant observations to reveal the unmodeled errors to a great extent, according to the behaviors of observation residuals. However, in the case of single frequency, the first-order ionospheric delays cannot be eliminated by the ionosphere-free combination in terms of two or more carrier phases with different frequencies, thus resulting in significant unmodeled effects more frequently. We therefore propose a method for real-time mitigation of the unmodeled errors in single-frequency multi-GNSS precise positioning. The proposed method has two main aspects. First, considering the estimability and property of unmodeled error parameters, the method of multi-epoch partial parameterization is proposed. Second, an iterative procedure is given, which can be applied in real time. The experiment is conducted using a four-station network of real single-frequency and combined global positioning system (GPS) and BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) observations, with baseline lengths from approximately 5 to 25 km. The results show that the GPS/BDS unmodeled errors are indeed mitigated and the positioning precision is improved after using the proposed method, where the precision of the up direction can be improved by a maximum of 56.90%.

Performance Assessment for Combined GPS and BDS Real-time Precise Point Positioning in the Coastal Region of Bohai Gulf, China

Qu, L.; Huang, H.; Du, M., and Acharya, T.D., 2019. Performance assessment for combined GPS and BDS real-time precise point positioning in the coastal region of Bohai Gulf, China. In: Lee, J.L.; Yoon, J.-S.; Cho, W.C.; Muin, M., and Lee, J. (eds.), The 3rd International Water Safety Symposium. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 91, pp. 271-275. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.In this study, we focus on the performance assessment of combined Global Positioning System (GPS) and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) real-time Precise Point Positioning (PPP) in the coastal region of Bohai Gulf, China. Firstly, 120 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations from Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) network of the International GNSS Service (IGS) were processed to generate ultra-rapid precise orbit of both GPS and BDS satellites, updated with the interval of three hours. Secondly, real-time precise satellite clock errors were estimated to compensate the orbit error with 24 regional stations from Crustal Monitor of Network of China (CMONOC) and MGEX networks. Finally, with those products, the performances of GPS-only, BDS-only and combined GPS and BDS real-time PPP were compared and evaluated. The experimental result illustrated that the ultra-rapid orbit accuracy of BDS-2 satellites was still worse than that of GPS satellites which was sub-decimeter level. Among three types of orbital satellites of BDS-2, the orbital accuracy of medium Earth orbit (MEO) and inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO) satellites were at decimeter level while for geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) satellites was at meter-level. The MEO satellites had the best accuracy while the GEO satellites performed the worst. In addition, the 3D accuracy of BDS-only real-time PPP was 10 cm better. Although the accuracy of BDS-2 real-time PPP was still worse than that of GPS and more time was taken for convergence. By adding BDS on top of GPS, the accuracy in the east, north and up components improved 40.0%, 33.3% and 18.5%, respectively, and the convergence time reduced 36.3%, 15.4% and 58.3%, respectively compared to the GPS only.

Habitat use of urban-nesting lesser black-backed gulls during the breeding season

Increasing urbanisation is detrimental for some animal species and potentially advantageous for others. Urban-nesting populations of gulls have undergone rapid population increases worldwide, which has resulted in an increase in human-gull conflicts. In order to inform management and conservation decisions in relation to these populations, more information is needed about the behaviour of these birds in urban settings and how they utilise their environment. This study combined Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking data of 12 urban-nesting lesser black-backed gulls, Larus fuscus, with habitat and behaviour data over three breeding seasons (2016–2018). Despite the proximity of marine areas (~10 km), the birds only made significant use of terrestrial environments, spending two-thirds of their time away from the nest in suburban and urban areas, and one-third in rural green areas. The gulls utilised suburban and urban areas more as their chicks grew and appeared to use diverse foraging strategies to suit different habitats. These results indicate that the range of potential foraging areas available needs to be considered in management decisions and that urban bird populations may not use the resources they are expected to.

Tightly combined GPS and GLONASS for RTK positioning with consideration of differential inter-system phase bias

A tightly combined inter-system model between two global navigation satellite systems can improve the performance of real-time kinematic (RTK) positioning, if the associated differential inter-system biases (DISBs) are processed well, especially for the severely obstructed environment. In recent years, tightly combined models among code division multiple access (CDMA) systems (e.g. Global Positioning System (GPS), BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS), Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS)) have been extensively studied. However, when there is tightly combined use of CDMA systems and Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), which adopts frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), we need to process not only the DISBs between systems, but the problem caused by the different wavelengths of the GLONASS satellites. In this paper, we propose a new model for the tight combination of GPS and GLONASS. First, we adopt the model with two reference satellites to maintain the integer ambiguity resolution of GLONASS. Then, an inter-system model between GPS and GLONASS is proposed with a total of three ‘reference satellites’ involved. Using several zero and ultra-short baselines, the stability of GPS and GLONASS differential inter-system phase biases (DISPBs) will be evaluated. The results indicated that the DISPBs between GPS and GLONASS are generally stable, although low-frequency variations may appear in the baselines with different receiver types. Using the stability of DISPBs, the combined GPS and GLONASS single-frequency RTK positioning performance is evaluated with simulated obstructed environments with no more than four GPS and four GLONASS satellites visible. It will be shown that compared with the intra-system model, the proposed inter-system model can improve the positioning accuracies by 13.5%, 15.0% and 46.2%, respectively, in three directions.

Foraging behaviour of Razorbills Alca torda during chick-rearing at the largest colony in the Baltic Sea

ABSTRACTCapsule: Foraging behaviour in the Razorbill Alca torda during breeding was similar to that found elsewhere, aside from dive shape.Aims: To investigate the foraging behaviour of Razorbills during the breeding season at the largest colony in the central Baltic Sea.Methods: A combination of global positioning system (GPS) and time-depth recorder (TDR) devices were used on Razorbills breeding on the island of Stora Karlsö, Baltic Sea, during the chick-rearing period.Results: Five GPS tracks and nine TDR logs were retrieved from 12 Razorbills, and 7399 dives were analysed. Razorbills foraged south and southwest of the colony. Maximum and mean (±sd) foraging range from the colony was 72.7 km and 13.1 ± 13.5 km, respectively. Mean dive depth (15.3 ± 2.4 m) and duration (53.1 ± 8.5 s) were similar to those of a more southern Baltic Sea Razorbill colony. Dive depth had a bimodal distribution, with 70% of dives deeper than 10 m and 30% shallower than 10 m. There was a clear diel foraging pattern with 89% of dives occurring during daytime and a higher proportion of shallow dives at night. Unexpectedly, dives were primarily U-shaped. The Razorbills spent 31% of their overall time activity budget flying or diving.Conclusion: Aside from dive shape, foraging behaviour was consistent with that reported at other colonies of Razorbills. Inconsistency in dive shape may be due to a bimodal foraging strategy, local prey behaviour or competition with the Common Guillemot Uria aalge.

A Joint Dual-Frequency GNSS/SINS Deep-Coupled Navigation System for Polar Navigation

The strategic position of the polar area and its rich natural resources are becoming increasingly important, while the northeast and northwest passages through the Arctic are receiving much attention as glaciers continue to melt. The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) can provide real-time observation data for the polar areas, but may suffer low elevation problems of satellites, signals with poor carrier-power-to-noise-density ratio (C/N0), ionospheric scintillations, and dynamic requirements. In order to improve the navigation performance in polar areas, a deep-coupled navigation system with dual-frequency GNSS and a grid strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) is proposed in the paper. The coverage and visibility of the GNSS constellation in polar areas are briefly reviewed firstly. Then, the joint dual-frequency vector tracking architecture of GNSS is designed with the aid of grid SINS information, which can optimize the tracking band, sharing tracking information to aid weak signal channels with strong signal channels and meet the dynamic requirement to improve the accuracy and robustness of the system. Besides this, the ionosphere-free combination of global positioning system (GPS) L1 C/A and L2 signals is used in the proposed system to further reduce ionospheric influence. Finally, the performance of the system is tested using a hardware simulator and semiphysical experiments. Experimental results indicate that the proposed system can obtain a better navigation accuracy and robust performance in polar areas.

A Model for Combined GPS and BDS Real-Time Kinematic Positioning using one Common Reference Ambiguity

This paper proposes a model for combined Global Positioning System (GPS) and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) positioning. The approach uses only one common reference ambiguity, for example, that of GPS L1, and estimates the pseudo-range and carrier phase system and frequency biases. The validations show that these biases are stable during a continuous reference ambiguity period and can be easily estimated, and the other estimated double-differenced ambiguities, such as those of GPS L2, BDS L1, and BDS L2, are not affected. Therefore, our approach solves the problems of a frequently changing reference satellite. In addition, because all the carrier phase observations use the same reference ambiguity, a relationship is established between the different systems and frequencies, and the strength of the combined model is thus increased.

Multiscale habitat selection by cow moose (Alces alces) at calving sites in central Ontario

There is limited knowledge of moose (Alces alces (L., 1758)) calving site selection at the southern limit of their range. Varying results from previous research on calving habitat selection make it challenging to extrapolate to other populations. We used a combination of global positioning system (GPS) data from collared cow moose and GPS locations of expelled vaginal implant transmitters and neonatal calf captures to identify calving sites in two areas of central Ontario, Canada (Algonquin Provincial Park and Wildlife Management Unit 49 (WMU49)), that differed in terms of moose and timber harvest management. We investigated selection and avoidance of habitat types, roads, topography (slope and elevation), and forest stands of varying successional age during the calving season at three spatiotemporal scales — annual home range, seasonal range, calving site — using a combination of distance-based and classification-based variables. In both study areas, calving sites were on gentler slopes and closer to conifer stands than expected at the fine scale. Cows in WMU49 strongly selected rock–grass sites across all scales. This study also demonstrates the feasibility of using GPS collars to infer parturition and location of calving sites. We recommend ground-based microhabitat data be collected to better understand habitat selection of moose during calving.